Session 8 (11/10) Reflections

Brief Overview

Energy and world change was the focus of this session. Key concepts such as energy security and sustainability were introduced. The relationship between the world economy and energy consumption and prices was also noted. We discussed at length the rising importance of renewable energy in overcoming limited fossil fuels and combating climate change.

Interesting Ideas/Observations

BP’s yearly review of world energy resources (Reading 1) looked at oil, natural gas, nuclear energy and hydroelectricity in terms of consumption, prices, reserves and production etc. This issue reviewed the energy development in 2009 and showed the link between the world economy and energy consumption. Global economy was in recession and contracted leading to a fall in global energy consumption for the first time since 1982. Consumption of oil, natural gas and nuclear power declined, while coal consumption was essentially flat; only hydroelectric output and other renewable forms of energy increased in 2009. Although renewable forms of energy remain a small share of the global energy mix but they continue to grow rapidly as a result of government support.

Reading 2 looks at technologies and actions that could provide the foundation for a sustainable transport system in OECD countries in particular a system with low or near-zero emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. It notes that climate change is one of the major challenges of the 21^st century and there is a need to move towards a clean energy system based on new technologies. Many of the actions available now to reduce greenhouse gas emissions stemming from transport will also be important steps for a much longer transition to a low-emissions, affordable and secure transport system

The third reading is an assessment of energy policymaking across the globe. Through this report, the World Energy Council hopes to provide guidance on innovative and successful policies and consider how they might best be replicated elsewhere. The report identifies three dimensions to energy sustainability: (i) security of supply of energy, (ii) environmental protection and climate change, and (iii) energy goes hand in hand with development- question of inequalities within and across countries. It is necessary to find a sustainable path that reconciles economic growth, protection of the environment and greater energy equity among peoples. This is possible and technologies we need are at hand, however, the main issue is governance. There is a need effective rules and smart policy frameworks to update our energy policies and ensure that the right resources and technologies are available at the right place and the right time and at the right price.

Reading 4 ties in with our last session on biotechnology, as it considers energy supply based on biomass. The article states that bioenergy is an emerging technology and its development is considered to be a form of evolutionary technology. It notes that there are essentially two distinct areas where biotechnology can contribute: (a) the area of traditional biotechnology (white biotech)- technical use of fermentation processes or enzymes in downstream processes of biomass conversion and (b) green biotech- genetic engineering of plants in order to tailor biomass with respect to their efficiency as energy resource. The article also identifies different fields of research whose integration will help create sustainable biomass based energy technologies, namely, biomass resources, supply systems, end products and conversion.

The Renewables 2010 Report (Reading 5) looks at the status of renewable energy worldwide. According to the report, the world has tapped only a small amount of the vast supply of renewable energy resources, despite the continuing upward trend of renewable energy growth. However, many of the trends reflect the increasing significance of renewable energy relative to conventional energy sources. There has been more active policy development- more than 100 countries had enacted some type of policy target and/or promotion policy related to renewable energy. It also noted the increasing significance of developing countries in advancing renewable energy such as China and India. Interestingly, it mentions that one of the forces propelling renewable energy development is the potential to create new industries and generate new jobs. Another interesting point is rural renewable energy, for example, lighting and cooking from biogas made in household-scale digesters.

One of the Youtube videos shown explained how the switch from wood (renewable resource) to fossil fuels in the UK and US actually prevented the depletion of forests there. I found this historical perspective particularly interesting, since the current trend is to move towards renewable sources and cut our dependence on fossil fuels. Of course the renewable sources of energy, which we are relying on, have changed from wood to other forms, such as solar energy or geothermal energy.

I also felt that the video on Germany’s solar experiment was very enlightening. It served as a good example to illustrate how government energy policies can lead to acceptance and widespread use of renewable energy sources.

Key Takeaway Points

• Consumption of energy resources is linked to the world economy
• Government energy policies are important in ensuring energy security and sustainability
• Renewable energy sources will be increasing important as we try to combat climate change and reduce our dependence on limited fossil fuels

Issues for Further Discussion

Would be interesting to discuss about Singapore’s lack of energy security and what possible steps we can take to increase our use of renewable energy sources such as solar energy

Rating

7/10 

Technology & Privacy

Currently in the midst of writing my individual topical paper on technology and privacy when I came across this case on my twitter feed. It's truly a sad case of technology being abused to invade privacy which ended in the worse possible way. 

Session 7 (27/9) Reflections

Brief Overview

This week we return to the biobusiness revolution to look at the areas of agricultural, environmental and industrial biotechnology.  We saw how the Green Revolution help drastically increase food supply and how biotechnology will continue to help feed the world in the future. The potential of industrial and environmental biotechnology in changing industrial processes in developing countries was also examined. Three videos were shown in class, the first was on the benefits brought by agricultural biotechnology, the second was an interview with Normal Borlaug, the father of the Green Revolution and the last looked at industrial enzymes. The individual presentations in class covered very interesting topics such as Plumpy’Nut and in vitro cultured meat.

Interesting Ideas/Observations

The US has been a forerunner in the area of agricultural biotechnology and reading 3 looks at the opportunities and challenges in the decade ahead. Some issues which were raised include the greater push for labeling of genetically-modified (GM) food. The US does not require labeling to differentiate between GM and non-GM food, however many other countries now require mandatory labeling for food products derived from modern biotechnology while other food manufactures are sourcing for non-transgenic groups creating a segmentation in the marketplace. This would have a negative impact on the US farmers who grow transgenic groups.

Another interesting point which was brought up in the report was the prediction that some of the transgenic plant varieties intended for food use developed over the next few years will likely emerge from the developing world such as China and India. This could have a significant impact on the global genetic engineering debate because large populations of humans will be consuming a staple transgenic whole food. When this happens, it is likely that transgenic food crops would achieve greater acceptance worldwide.

Reading 4 and 7 covered the same topic, mainly how agricultural biotechnology in the form of transgenic plants could help meet our future needs for food. Both articles expressed confidence in the ability of current technologies to meet the current and long term demand for food worldwide. Reading 4 suggests that the one of the threats to reaping the benefits from biotechnology lies in the many well-financed anti-science groups. The author, Norman Borlaug, points out that affluent nations can afford to adopt elitist positions and pay more for food produced by so-called natural methods but the poor and hungry people of this world cannot, these new technology will be their salvation.

Reading 7, on the other hand, mentions the need to mobilize political will and build the necessary institutions in order to ensure that key decisions on investment and policies to eradicate hunger are taken and implemented effectively. Several other challenges against eradicating world hunger include climate change, biofuels (competition for land/resources between growing biofuel crops and food crops or food crops used for biofuels) and the lack of income and absence of effective social safety nets which may lead to a situation of hunger amidst adequate overall supplies.

Both readings 5 and 6 discussed environmental and industrial biotechnology in developing countries. Reading 5 suggests that industrial biotechnology is most likely to be adopted in intermediate developing countries as they would have the basic infrastructure and capabilities to adopt these cleaner production processes. This move would require foreign investment and/or partnerships to help further develop infrastructure and provide financial resources. The last part of the article also looks at some policy directions which can be adopted for biotechnology to be introduced into the industrial sectors of the developing world- international agencies can promote private sector involvement by helping mitigate risk through the establishment of mechanisms to identify promising technologies and provide parallel investments at the initial stage, strong local government involvement is needed, etc.

Similarly, reading 6 reviews the prospects and challenges associated with the introduction of industrial and environmental biotechnology into the global economy, in particular, the ability of developing countries to play a significant role in this emerging field. It suggests that sustaining a new bioeconomy requires the adoption of a global governance regime for biotechnology that helps to bring a large number of developing countries into the global trading system. Failure to do so will create a ‘genetic divide’ among countries and intensify public opposition to biotechnology. The article also stressed the importance of a more open market access system, flexible enforcement of intellectual property rights in industrialized countries and adherence to minimum protection standards in developing countries and wider technology partnerships through corporate alliances, to help develop a new bioeconomy.

Key Take Away Points

• The movement of people away from rural to urban areas has resulted in greater amalgamation of agricultural land allowing the mechanization of farms and greater yields
• The Green Revolution may have vastly increased our food production capabilities but many challenges still lie in the way of acceptance of GM food worldwide
• The use of transgenic crop may be the answer to ensure long term food security for all but political will must be mobilized and the necessary institutions need to be built
• Industrial biotechnology can lead the way to cleaner production processes through the use of biodegradable enzymes instead of polluting chemicals, however, greater investment in this area is required for there to be a shift

Issues for Further Discussion

Most of the discussion in class focused more on agricultural biotechnology, especially transgenic food, it would have been good if industrial and environmental biotechnology was discussed in greater depth.

Rating

9/10 because I felt that the individual class presentations this week were very well done. The topics covered were not only interesting and varied, the presenters also knew their material very well and this made the session informative and enjoyable. 

Session 6 (20/9) Reflections

Brief Overview

In this session we looked at the biobusiness revolution, in particular, the area of healthcare and biomedical sciences. We watched an introductory video, which gave us a glimpse into the future of healthcare, as well as a humorous video starring Bill Maher criticizing US health policies and pharmaceutical industry. We also looked at some statistics relating to biobusiness and discussed about the high levels of spending in US on healthcare. There were several interesting presentations focusing on subjects such clinical trials and growing organs.

Interesting Ideas/Observations

The relationship between intellectual property rights (IPRs), biotechnology and the third world is explored in reading 2. As a result of the developed countries’ system of commodization, profit and economic control through IPRs, negative impacts have been imposed onto third world local communities regarding genetic and biological diversity. This system works towards market dominance and maximizes profit but has nothing to do with invention and reward or sustainable economic development, inviting ecological and socio-economic disaster instead.  I was particularly intrigued by this article as IPRs are a product of our modern legal systems which are intangible and yet can have so much impact on our tangible surroundings.

Reading 4 examines whether disruptive innovations can solve problems in the US healthcare industry. The article suggests that healthcare may be the most change-averse industry and innovations that can make improvements are ready but cannot find backers. It examines factors that result in a resistance or inertia within the system to adopt new systems and technologies. An interesting point is how regulation is often used as a method of preserving the current system and how this needs to be overcome. The last part of the article highlights the need for leadership to embrace disruptive changes in the healthcare sector in order to build a higher quality, more convenient and lower cost healthcare system.

This article harks back to Session 4’s discussion on change leadership and management. I felt that the first presentation by Dave looking at the possible future adoption of electronic medical records tied up nicely with this reading as it covered the barriers to implementation of this new system and possible ways implementation could take place.

Reading 5, a testimony by the then Commissioner of Food and Drugs in US, raises several interesting points about economic contributions and costs of new medical technologies. Technological change in medicine brings about benefits in addition to direct economic gains which are usually not taken into account (e.g. less absent time from work). Also, direct economic and public health benefits of developing new medicines often take time to be realized due to clinical trials etc, compared to other forms of technologies. Innovations in medicine can reduce spending on medical care, but they can also increase spending as more people undertake certain medical procedures (e.g. cataracts surgery). Increased spending is therefore not a negative reflection on technological change.

Maximizing public health gains and economic gains from new medical technology requires encouraging high value innovations and realizing more value from products used. There is great uncertainty especially with regards to cost and time spent, in the development of new treatments and medicines. This long and difficult process of development requires the right mix of incentives and safeguards in order to maximize the benefit from safe and effective new medical technologies. 

Reading 6 looks at the global healthy strategy that the Gates foundation adopts. The goal of the program is to use advances in science and technology to address major causes of illness and death in developing countries. The foundation has chosen to invest in a specific set of diseases and health conditions which have been neglected, and they support the creation and delivery of vaccines, drugs and diagnostic through methods such as grantmaking. Advocacy is also used to encourage wise policies, strong political commitment and sustained contributions from other sources. I thought reading 6 was particularly enlightening as it introduced me to the significance and impact of private philanthropy as a way to fund and promote health in the developing world, an area often thought to be the purview of NGOs and governments.

Key Take Away Points

• Biobusiness- commercial activities based on an understanding of life sciences and processes
• Intellectual property rights play a big role in the future of biotechnology as well as biodiversity
• Like any other area, change management is required for the healthcare industry to continually improve and progress
• Medical technologies and innovations have positive impacts which cannot be measured through traditional economic methods
• The process of development requires the right mix of incentives and safeguards in order to maximize the benefit from safe and effective new medical technologies.
• Private philanthropy is a major source of funding for healthcare in developing countries

Issues for Further Discussion

In class, prof showed us the chart showing the high level of spending on healthcare by the US and also the Bill Maher video. I found the discussion on US healthcare rather interesting. I would have liked it if more discussion of this issue was covered.

Also, more emphasis on Reading 2 would have been interesting. A comparison/link between Reading 2 and Reading 6 could have been made, especially since expensive patented drugs is an issue which has been raised in relation to healthcare in the developing world.

Rating

8/10

Session 5 (13/9) Reflections

Brief Overview

In this session, we look at information and communication technologies (ICTs) and how they can continue to change our world. In particular, we discuss the role of ICTs in helping the less developed countries achieve the Millenium Development Goals and more developed countries like those in the European Union move towards a green, knowledge-based society. We watched a video on immersive technology developed by Microsoft for gaming but which has possible implications in other areas such as healthcare. Also, cloud computing was highlighted as one of the upcoming technologies which could change the way businesses run in the new future.

Interesting ideas/observations

Reading 2 raises some interesting points on how ICTs could improve the condition of each individual, by bonding people and thereby changing the relationship between each one of us. It is noted that the falling cost of devices and expanding access to networks will result a greater spread of ICTs. In particular, four technical advances, peer-to-peer networks, precise local and spatial data systems, sensor fusion and unique identity systems, promise to aid future development.

In a more networked world, the evolution of complex systems from simple components (individual devices) will occur . The linking of previously independent systems brings with it unanticipated uses and behaviour. I like the analogy the article makes between these systems such as the Internet and cities or biological systems as well as the point made that these systems need to be studied and focus cannot remain on just individual technologies but should include how they interact.

What stood out the most in this article was the part about how the networked world could change the way we see ourselves. It is suggested the ICTs would allow us to combine local reporting with global information, enabling us to understand in an immediate way what might be done to change another person's life. "Seeing what is shows us what to do", ICTs therefore may revolutionize the way charity and relief efforts are carried out in the future as well as encourage more persons to take part in such movements.

On a similar vein, reading 3 discusses how ICTs can be used to pursue the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs). ICTs have the potential to help poor communities develop in the areas of poverty, health and education. If deployed correctly, they could benefit the poor and play a catalytic role in accelerating their economic and social development. The developing world could use the "digital divide" as opportunities to leapfrog to cutting-edge technolgies. The article proposes a framework for incorporating ICTs into development: strategy, regulatory framework, implementation, capacity development, partnerships and measurement. Some measures are proposed in the article which can be used to achieve the MDGs include providing e-learning as an alternative education channel and the introduction of telemedicine.

I felt that reading 2 and 3 served as good introductions to the potential uses of ICTs for developmental efforts around the world. Reading 4 shifts the focus to the European Union (EU), and shows how ICT is a key positive element in empowering the move towards a green, knowledge society with sustainable economic growth. The three policy themes which govern the EU's ICT policy are social impacts, the need for economic prosperity by transition into a knowledge based economy and addressing climate change.

It is interesting to note the areas in which ICTs are employed in more developed countries to improve and move their society forward. ICTs are seen as one of the major elements in enabling a move towards the knowledge based economy. Besides a knowledge economy, the EU aim to move towards a knowledge society by improving digital literacy and better support for older people. ICTs could also revolutionize the delivery of public services and increase the participation of the public. This is an area which the Singapore government has explored in recent years. Many services are now available online and feedback is routinely collected through the internet before decisions are made (e.g. feedback on the views of the public before the casinos bill was passed). The areas which the report covered are also relevant to Singapore.

Reading 4 states that using ICTs such as cloud computing could also provide better support for SMEs and drive the economy. This is further elaborated on in reading 5 as well as through the video shown in class and one of the presentations. Cloud computing appears to have a lot of potential to revoluntionize the way businesses work.

At the mainstream level, cloud computing has also made an impact on how individuals store and transfer information. For example, information gathered for our TWC group project is placed on Google Docs, which greatly improves the way we can access and edit them. Previously, editing documents required us to send numerous emails resulting in many editions of a single document. Another example is Dropbox. During the floorball league, video recordings were made of our matches so that we could watch them and review our tactics and performance after, however these video filed were too huge to send through email so Dropbox was used instead. From these personal experiences, I too believe that cloud computing is a form of technology with much potential to change the way we interact and do work.

Reading 6, the video cum blog entry by Prof, was a real eye opener. It was interesting how such immersive technology designed for computer games could have potential use in a myriad of areas other than gaming. As discussed, such technologies may also lead to ethical issues being raised as to their use. This video demonstrated not only the potential for immersive technology but the potential of technology in general in changing the way we perceived things, do things and live our lives.


Key take away points

• Small changes in ICTs may trigger unexpectedly explosive changes in use (e.g. the adoption of TCP/IP brought about the Internet)
• ICTs can be used to help poor and less developed countries develop in areas such as health and education
• ICTs also play an important roles in developed countries who utilized such technologies to drive their economy and improve their societies
• Cloud computing and immersive technologies are some of the upcoming technologies which would continue to revoluntionize the way we do things.

Issues for further discussion

Would have liked it if there was discussion regarding the role of ICTs in developed countries as much of the class discussion focused on whether ICTs should be introduced to less developed countries.

Rating
8/10

Session 4 (6/9) Reflections

Brief Overview

This week we look at the global drivers of change and how to effectively manage change.

Interesting Ideas/Observations

Drivers of Change

Reading 1 identifies global drivers of change to 2060 while reading 3 predicts what the global landscape would look like in 2025, splitting the scenarios between those which are relatively certain as well as key uncertainties and fleshes out what the implications are. Both readings mention the increase stress on limited resources, a shift in world economic power (rise of China and India) and climate change.

It was mentioned during the discussion that infectious diseases (one of the drivers mentioned in reading 1) were historically a driver of change (e.g. the black plague). I thought that was rather enlightening and recent experience from SARS, bird flu and H1N1 has definitely highlighted the continued impact infectious diseases have on the world.

It is interesting to note that technology is implicitly present in discussions of drivers of change or how the global landscape would be in the future. For example, the increase stress on scarce resources, whether energy, water or food, requires technological advancement to try and solve these problems. Another example is terrorism; it is noted in reading 2 that opportunities for mass-casualty attacks will increase as “technology diffuses”.

Reading 2 focuses on globalization, technology and competition as drivers of change. Although the reading appears to be slightly dated, the core ideas are still relevant. Some observations and ideas raised are particularly noteworthy:

• -        Technology is both driven by and is a driver of globalization
• -        Globalization manifests itself in intensified competition which is a positive-sum game for society
• -        Investing in new technology and enhancing entrepreneurial capabilites is necessary for firms to maintain or increase their competitive advantage

Of the three presentations for this segment, I found Aishwarya’s presentation, which looked at human ingenuity as the foremost driver of change, to be the most interesting. I liked the idea that technology need not be complex to change someone’s world. Simple, new technologies can be created using everyday objects in less developed areas as long as one is able to harness this ingenuity.

Change Management

Reading 2 suggests some differences between leaders and managers. From the discussion in class, which I agree with, leaders provide the vision and the direction while the management implements it. When coping with change, leaders will ‘make it happen’ while managers ‘respond when it happens’.

The main point this reading 1 emphasizes is that the human element is essential in change projects, since it is not organizations that adapt to change, but their people that do. It is observed that the traditional approach towards change management: unfreeze-change-refreeze, is now obsolete and continual change is necessary. Change projects have to be aligned with human nature, what motivates people varies from individual, a one-size-fits-all, top-down approach is bound to fail. Human behavior, however, can be modified using a combination of incentives and disincentives, if the desire for change is created in the individual.

Reading 3 sets out a systematic approach towards directing and managing change from a manager’s perspective, which if applied well, could help increase the will of employees to work. It proposes that in order to adapt to change, it is necessary to forecast the future and plan what needs to be done, policies need to be decided on then implemented through setting targets. Performance needs to be evaluated regularly in order to ascertain the effectiveness of these policies in adapting to change. This reading also echoes reading 1’s point that tasks or targets imposed from above are unlikely to be done willingly or well. Instead, the manager is encouraged to frequently engage in dialogue with his subordinates in every stage of change management.

For the second part of presentations, I found Jiaming’s presentation which examined the human psychological side of change, was very much in line with both reading 1 and 3. His presentation outlined 4 basic conditions to successful change projects: (i) a compelling story, (ii) role modeling, (iii) reinforcing mechanisms and (iv) capacity building, all conditions were mentioned at some point in reading 1 or 3.

Key Take Away Points

• There are numerous drivers of change which could lead to both positive and negative changes, some of the current drivers of global change include climate change, shift in world economic power, new technologies, diseases and scarcity of resources.
• Technology is both driven by and is a driver of globalization
• The human element is important in change projects
• Managers should seek to let employees take ownership of the change project through engaging them in the entire process, this would increase the likelihood of success  

Issues for Further Discussion

• What are ways in which the chasm between early adopters of new technology and early pragmatists can be crossed? What implications does this 'chasm' have on inventions and their inventors?

Rating

7/10 

Session 3 (30/8) Reflections

Brief Overview

Session 3 is split into two parts, the first focuses on sustainable industrial development while the second looks at innovation management. As I was on MC and did not attend class, my reflections would focus only on the assigned readings which I found most interesting.

Interesting ideas/observations

Industrial Development

The EU environment fact sheet (Reading 1) on the initiatives employed to ensure sustainable industrial development, demonstrates the systematic and comprehensive approach the EU takes towards reducing the negative impacts of industrialization. The EU is known as a leader in international climate policy and has some of the most innovative, extensive and rigorous environmental regulations. However, for newly industrialized countries such as Vietnam or rapidly growing economies such as China, are such EU-style environmental laws feasible?

Regulations limiting the amount of carbon emissions may be simple to pass but in a huge country like China, enforcing the limits will pose a challenge considering their weak institutions where bribery and corruption is rampant. An EU-style emissions trading scheme would crumble if companies can simply circumvent the emission caps and not face repercussions. Also, the developing country’s government may not be interested in adopting such environmental policies as these regulations impose costs on both the government and the industries which may hamper economic growth.

Perhaps methods such as allowing European companies to invest in emission-saving projects elsewhere to meet their commitments at home is the best way to help developing countries achieve sustainable industrialization through technology transfer. EU’s complex environmental regulations however can serve as a guide to large, developed economies such as the US and Japan.

Reading 3 (Sustainability for Tomorrow’s Consumer) highlights the need for businesses to alter their business model and be open to new ideas and opportunities in order to meet consumer demands despite resource constraints. In particular, I was struck by the point raised in the paper about how the growth of the middle class worldwide would lead to a huge strain on commodities and resources based on historic consumption patterns.

Most discussions on sustainability focus on the point of view of businesses, ways they can change their processes to use resources more efficiently etc. The reading, for example, suggests that to be successful, the consumer industry will need to balance growing consumer demand for sustainable products with demands for convenience and price sensitivity. However, it seems to be taken for granted that it is fine for consumers to carry on with their current consumption habits (the thinking is perhaps along the lines of ‘if they can afford it, why stop them from consuming’).

A quick scan of my room, cluttered with shoes, bags, books, stationery etc, causes me to think that beyond the discussion of sustainable products, perhaps consumption habits in general need to be changed. Consumers in developed countries buy things that they ‘want’ and not necessarily things that they ‘need’. In my opinion, overconsumption is an unhealthy habit that society and its consumers need to kick, but till then perhaps sustainable products is the best way to reduce the impact of overconsumption. 

Technology and Innovation Management

Reading 1 focuses on role of the US government in encouraging and guiding innovation and technological advances. The key idea seems to be that innovation cannot be control or even anticipated but an environment that fosters and supports innovation is more likely to see results. Beyond the policies mentioned in the reading, I feel that a crucial aspect of creating this environment is a strong intellectual property regime. In Singapore, our copyright, patent and industrial design laws confer rights to innovators, which allow them to benefit financially from their innovations thus providing a strong incentive.

The map showing areas of leadership (current and potential) in technology innovation (Reading 2) piqued my interest since it is something new to me. Of the four dimensions of technological capacity used to create the Technological Achievement Index (TAI), the component which measured the diffusion of old innovations (telephones and electricity were used as indicators) came as a surprise. However the explanation that technological advance is a cumulative process and widespread diffusion of older innovations is necessary for adoption of later innovation makes a lot of sense.

Key Take Away Points

• Sustainable development is a real and pressing issue which involves companies, consumers and governments.
• The government plays a big role in both sustainable and innovation management. Its policies which restrict certain activities (e.g. pollution) or encourage others (e.g. monetary incentives for research) can have a big impact on the country’s future.  
• Education and human skills are an important aspect which helps to contribute towards innovation.
• Fragmentation is a challenge facing innovation management, cooperation is essential. (Reading 3) 

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